Abbreviations:
AIM (activation induced marker), COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019), ELISpot (Enzyme-linked immunospot), ICS (intracellular cytokine staining), IL (interleukin), MAIT cell (mucosa-association invariant T cell), PASC (post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection), RBD (receptor-binding domain), SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2), SOT (Solid organ transplant)OVERVIEW
LONG-TERM PROTECTIVE IMMUNITY FOLLOWING INFECTION
- Lei Q
- Li Y
- Hou H-Y
- et al.
- Lau EHY
- Tsang OTY
- Hui DSC
- et al.
- Gaebler C
- Wang Z
- Lorenzi JCC
- et al.
- Peluso MJ
- Takahashi S
- Hakim J
- et al.
- L'Huillier AG
- Meyer B
- Andrey DO
- et al.
- Di Germanio C
- Simmons G
- Kelly K
- et al.
- Yao L
- Wang G-L
- Shen Y
- et al.
- Wisnivesky JP
- Stone K
- Bagiella E
- et al.
- Yao L
- Wang G-L
- Shen Y
- et al.
- Le Bert N
- Clapham HE
- Tan AT
- et al.
- Dan JM
- Mateus J
- Kato Y
- et al.
- Bilich T
- Nelde A
- Heitmann JS
- et al.
- Cho A
- Muecksch F
- Schaefer-Babajew D
- et al.
- Peluso MJ
- Takahashi S
- Hakim J
- et al.
- Peluso MJ
- Takahashi S
- Hakim J
- et al.
- Di Germanio C
- Simmons G
- Kelly K
- et al.
- Dan JM
- Mateus J
- Kato Y
- et al.
- Bilich T
- Nelde A
- Heitmann JS
- et al.
BREADTH AND DEPTH OF T CELL IMMUNE RESPONSES AND CROSS-REACTIVITY TO OTHER CORONAVIRUSES
- Tarke A
- Sidney J
- Kidd CK
- et al.
- Tarke A
- Sidney J
- Kidd CK
- et al.
- Dan JM
- Mateus J
- Kato Y
- et al.
- Tarke A
- Sidney J
- Methot N
- et al.
- Dan JM
- Mateus J
- Kato Y
- et al.
- Karlsson AC
- Humbert M
- Buggert M.
VACCINE INDUCED ANTIBODY AND T CELL RESPONSES
- Klasse PJ
- Nixon DF
- Moore JP.
- Jung J
- Sung H
- Kim S-H.
- Levin EG
- Lustig Y
- Cohen C
- et al.
- Pilishvili T
- Gierke R
- Fleming-Dutra KE
- et al.
- Thomas SJ
- Moreira Jr, ED
- Kitchin N
- et al.
- Jung J
- Sung H
- Kim S-H.
- Levin EG
- Lustig Y
- Cohen C
- et al.
- Pilishvili T
- Gierke R
- Fleming-Dutra KE
- et al.
- Thomas SJ
- Moreira Jr, ED
- Kitchin N
- et al.
- Ke R
- Martinez PP
- Smith RL
- et al.
- Klasse PJ
- Nixon DF
- Moore JP.
IMMUNITY IN IMMUNOCOMPROMISED INDIVIDUALS
- Stock PG
- Henrich TJ
- Segev DL
- Werbel WA.
- Herrera S
- Colmenero J
- Pascal M
- et al.
- Sattler A
- Schrezenmeier E
- Weber UA
- et al.
- Alejo JL
- Mitchell J
- Chiang TP-Y
- et al.
- Greenberger LM
- Saltzman LA
- Senefeld JW
- Johnson PW
- DeGennaro LJ
- Nichols GL.
- Brosh-Nissimov T
- Orenbuch-Harroch E
- Chowers M
- et al.
- Apostolidis SA
- Kakara M
- Painter MM
- et al.
- Disanto G
- Sacco R
- Bernasconi E
- et al.
- Moor MB
- Suter-Riniker F
- Horn MP
- et al.
- Apostolidis SA
- Kakara M
- Painter MM
- et al.
- Schmidt T
- Klemis V
- Schub D
- et al.
- Hall VG
- Ferreira VH
- Ierullo M
- et al.
- Apostolidis SA
- Kakara M
- Painter MM
- et al.
- Papalini C
- Paciosi F
- Schiaroli E
- et al.
- Woldemeskel BA
- Karaba AH
- Garliss CC
- et al.
- Ruddy JA
- Boyarsky BJ
- Bailey JR
- et al.
HUMAN INFLAMMATORY RESPONSES IN COVID-19
Tobias Herold MD, Arnreich C, Hellmuth JC, Matthias Klein MD, Tobias Weinberger MD. Level of IL-6 predicts respiratory failure in hospitalized symptomatic COVID-19 patients. https://www.allergy.org.au/images/stories/about/attach-IL-6_as_a_marker_of_outcome_in_COVID-19.pdf
IMMUNOLOGIC AND INFLAMMATORY MANIFESTATIONS OF POST-ACUTE SEQUELAE OF SARS-COV-2 INFECTION (PASC)
- Nalbandian A
- Sehgal K
- Gupta A
- et al.
- Blomberg B
- Mohn KG-I
- Brokstad KA
- et al.
- Nalbandian A
- Sehgal K
- Gupta A
- et al.
- Blomberg B
- Mohn KG-I
- Brokstad KA
- et al.
- Blomberg B
- Mohn KG-I
- Brokstad KA
- et al.
- Horton DB
- Barrett ES
- Roy J
- et al.
- Gaebler C
- Wang Z
- Lorenzi JCC
- et al.
- Talla A
- Vasaikar SV
- Lemos MP
- et al.
- Talla A
- Vasaikar SV
- Lemos MP
- et al.
- Talla A
- Vasaikar SV
- Lemos MP
- et al.
- Peluso MJ
- Lu S
- Tang AF
- et al.
- Seeßle J
- Waterboer T
- Hippchen T
- et al.
- Peluso MJ
- Thomas IJ
- Munter SE
- Deeks SG
- Henrich TJ.
TISSUE PERSISTENCE OF SARS-COV-2 INFECTION: A POTENTIAL MECHANISM FOR PASC?
- Gaebler C
- Wang Z
- Lorenzi JCC
- et al.
LEVERAGING THE STUDY OF OTHER CHRONIC INFECTIONS TO UNDERSTAND POST-ACUTE SEQUELAE OF SARS-COV-2 INFECTION
- Wang H
- Peng G
- Bai J
- et al.
- Wu G
- Zuck P
- Goh SL
- et al.
- Nguyen S
- Deleage C
- Darko S
- et al.
- Lee E
- von Stockenstrom S
- Morcilla V
- et al.
- Nguyen S
- Deleage C
- Darko S
- et al.
Humoral and Cellular Immunology |
What is the role of T cells in preventing or mitigating the severity of acute infection or re-infection in those with prior SARS-CoV-2 infection or vaccination? |
At what point following infection or vaccination is protection from hospitalization and severe illness lost? At what point is protection from re-infection lost? |
How does post-infection immunity compare with post-vaccine immunity? How does this immunity compare across emerging variants of concern? |
What is the functional half-life of SARS-CoV-2-specific T cells and amnestic potential following infection or vaccination? |
How do novel SARS-CoV-2 therapeutics, including antivirals and immunomodulatory agents, affect long-term immunity following natural infection? |
Are the compensatory T cell responses observed in immunocompromised patients with imparied humoral immunity following vaccination protective? |
Mucosal Immunity |
What are the key factors in determining the presence and duration of protective mucosal immunity? |
How does immune memory differ between what has been observed in peripheral blood with various tissues (eg, mucosal and organized lymphoid tissues, lower respiratory tract, etc.) |
What is the role of secretory and circulating IgA antibodies? |
Post-Acute Sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 Infection |
Are there immune mechanisms active during acute infection that predict the development of post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection (PASC)? |
Are there immune mechanisms that are initiated during the recovery phase (ie, after acute infection has resolved) that are associated with PASC? |
If immune mechanisms are found to underlie PASC, can we distinguish persistent immune perturbations from the sequelae of so-called “hit-and-run” mechanisms? |
Does SARS-CoV-2 antigen persist beyond the period of mucosal viral shedding, either in the form of replication-competent or non-replication-competent virus? If so, at what body sites? |
Do inadequate or excessive immune responses (including autoimmune responses) contribute to PASC? |
If immune mechanisms drive PASC, are there interventions which can prevent or treat PASC symptoms? |
Will PASC lead to increased risk of cardiovascular or neurologic diseases over time? |
Quantifying Tissue SARS-CoV-2 Burden and Sequelae |
What tissue-based measurements will be informative in determining whether SARS-CoV-2 genetic material or protein persist in tissues? What measurements will be acceptable in those who have entered the convalescent phase? |
Are there non-invasive methods of measuring whole-body immune responses or inflammation in the setting of SARS-CoV-2 infection? |
CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
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